Climate Change and Its Impact on Infant and Maternal Health

Climate change is reshaping the health landscape for the world’s most vulnerable populations-pregnant women and young children. Rising temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, and increasingly frequent extreme weather events are driving a surge in climate-sensitive diseases, malnutrition, and threats to safe water access. These impacts don’t affect everyone equally; they fall hardest on mothers and infants in low-income countries, where healthcare systems are already stretched thin and resources are scarce.

Climate-sensitive diseases in children 🔗

Children bear a disproportionate burden of climate-related health impacts. According to the World Health Organization, lower respiratory tract infections, diarrheal diseases, and malaria account for more than half of all deaths in children under five years of age. All three disease categories are climate-sensitive and projected to worsen as global temperatures rise.

Malaria and vector-borne diseases 🔗

Changing temperature and precipitation patterns directly influence the geographic range and seasonal activity of disease-carrying mosquitoes. Warmer and wetter conditions expand suitable habitats for vectors, allowing them to survive in areas previously too cold or dry. This means immunologically naïve populations-particularly children who have never been exposed to these diseases-face new transmission risks. In highland regions of Africa and parts of Asia, malaria transmission is expanding to higher elevations as temperatures climb.

Diarrheal diseases 🔗

Diarrheal diseases remain among the leading causes of death for children under five, responsible for approximately 444,000 child deaths annually. Temperature increases directly correlate with higher diarrheal disease incidence, as bacterial pathogens thrive and multiply more rapidly in warmer conditions. Flooding events compound this problem by contaminating water sources with fecal matter and overwhelming sanitation infrastructure. In Sub-Saharan Africa, research has demonstrated that both excess rainfall and extreme temperatures significantly raise diarrhea incidence among children under three.

Why children are especially vulnerable 🔗

Children face unique physiological vulnerabilities that amplify their climate-related health risks. Compared to adults, they breathe more air, drink more water, and eat more food relative to their body weight. Their hand-to-mouth behavior and the fact that they play close to the ground increases exposure to environmental hazards. Children’s developing organ systems and physiology make them less able to regulate body temperature effectively, putting them at greater risk during heat waves and extreme weather events.

Malnutrition compounds these vulnerabilities significantly. An undernourished child’s weakened immune system cannot effectively fight off infections, creating a dangerous cycle where climate-sensitive diseases and poor nutrition reinforce each other. UNICEF reports that rising global temperatures are disrupting access to clean and safe water, exposing children to life-threatening diseases that further impact nutrition.

Maternal health risks 🔗

Pregnant women represent one of the most vulnerable groups to climate change impacts. Their bodies undergo significant physiological changes that reduce their ability to regulate temperature, making them more susceptible to heat-related complications. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency notes that pregnant women are more prone to heat exhaustion and heat stroke than the general population.

Extreme heat and pregnancy outcomes 🔗

Research consistently links high temperatures to adverse birth outcomes. Extreme heat exposure during pregnancy has been associated with low birth weight, preterm birth, and increased infant mortality. According to WHO data, each additional 1°C in minimum daily temperature above 23.9°C can increase infant mortality risk by as much as 22.4%. Heat waves cause spikes in preterm births-the leading cause of childhood deaths globally.

The mechanisms behind heat-related pregnancy complications include reduced placental blood flow, oxidative stress, and the release of inflammatory markers. Dehydration during extreme heat can lead to kidney failure in pregnant women, further endangering both mother and fetus.

Air pollution exposure 🔗

Climate change exacerbates air pollution through increased wildfire frequency, dust storms during droughts, and higher ground-level ozone formation. Exposure to these pollutants during pregnancy creates serious risks. Studies show compelling evidence linking fine particulate matter (PM2.5) exposure to adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, including low birth weight, preterm birth, and negative impacts on fetal brain and lung development.

Pregnant women living in areas with poor air quality face higher rates of hypertensive disorders during pregnancy, gestational diabetes, and preeclampsia. These conditions not only endanger maternal health but also affect infant development and survival rates in the critical first months of life.

Mental health impacts 🔗

The psychological toll of climate-related disasters on pregnant and postpartum women is often overlooked. Trauma from extreme weather events can trigger post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety. These mental health conditions are known risk factors for adverse perinatal outcomes, creating another pathway through which climate change endangers maternal and infant health. Disruption to support networks and healthcare access after disasters compounds these challenges.

Water scarcity and health security 🔗

Access to clean, safe water is fundamental to health security, yet climate change is severely disrupting water resources worldwide. The World Health Organization reports that over 2 billion people currently live in water-stressed countries-a situation expected to worsen significantly in many regions due to climate change and population growth.

Waterborne disease transmission 🔗

Contaminated drinking water transmits diseases including cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and hepatitis A, causing approximately 505,000 diarrheal deaths each year. Climate extremes directly increase waterborne disease risk through multiple pathways. Higher temperatures accelerate pathogen growth and proliferation in water sources. Flooding overwhelms sanitation infrastructure and contaminates water supplies with sewage. Droughts concentrate pathogens in limited water supplies and force communities to use unsafe water sources.

The 2016-2017 drought in the Horn of Africa illustrates this dynamic clearly. Somalia reported over 75,000 suspected cholera cases in 2017-a nearly five-fold increase from the previous year-as drought created widespread shortages of safe drinking water. Neighboring Ethiopia experienced similar outbreaks during the same period.

Impacts on pregnant women and children 🔗

Pregnant women face heightened vulnerability to water-related illnesses. They have a higher risk of gastrointestinal illness from contaminated water compared to other adults. Severe gastrointestinal illness can cause pregnancy loss and preterm birth. Flooding has been specifically associated with conditions threatening maternal health, including anemia, preeclampsia, and eclampsia.

For children, access to improved water sources directly affects health outcomes, school attendance, and long-term life prospects. When water is scarce, hygiene practices suffer, increasing disease transmission. Healthcare facilities in water-stressed areas cannot maintain sterile environments, putting patients at risk of infection.

Malnutrition and climate change 🔗

The connection between climate change and malnutrition represents one of the most insidious threats to child survival and maternal health. Land degradation and soil pollution reduce both the quantity and nutritional quality of food, while extreme weather events disrupt food production, transportation, and availability.

Land degradation and food security 🔗

Each year, an area of fertile land roughly the size of Egypt is lost to degradation. The UN Convention to Combat Desertification warns that this loss is fueling malnutrition, respiratory disease, and the spread of infections across vulnerable regions. In drylands-now covering more than 40% of Earth’s surface-rates of malnutrition, respiratory illness, and waterborne disease continue to rise.

Soil degradation affects human nutrition through multiple pathways. Declining soil fertility reduces crop yields, directly contributing to food insecurity. But the impacts extend beyond quantity to quality: degraded soils produce crops with lower concentrations of essential micronutrients including zinc, iron, selenium, and iodine. This “hidden hunger” affects billions of people who may consume enough calories but lack vital nutrients.

The malnutrition-disease cycle 🔗

Malnutrition doesn’t simply weaken the body-it undermines the immune system’s ability to fight infection. Zinc deficiency, for example, negatively affects wound healing and immune system response, while iron deficiency leads to anemia that makes children more susceptible to infections. A malnourished child who contracts malaria, diarrhea, or a respiratory infection faces much higher mortality risk than a well-nourished child.

Climate change-induced malnutrition could cause an additional 95,000 child deaths annually by 2030. Chronic malnutrition causes stunting-affecting an estimated 150 million children worldwide-which limits learning potential and future employment opportunities, perpetuating cycles of poverty.

Extreme weather and food systems 🔗

Droughts cause crop failures that spike food prices, leaving families unable to afford nutritious food. Floods destroy harvests and contaminate stored food supplies. Heat waves reduce agricultural productivity and worker output. For pregnant women, food shortages create severe risks: poor nutrition during pregnancy can cause delivery complications, low birth weight, and infant mortality.

Women and girls often bear additional burdens during climate-induced food crises. When food is scarce, children are frequently the first in households to become malnourished. In places like Zambia, droughts have pushed up food prices, leaving pregnant mothers undernourished and babies born weaker and more vulnerable to disease.

Breaking the cycle 🔗

The interlinked challenges of climate-sensitive diseases, water scarcity, and malnutrition create reinforcing feedback loops that trap vulnerable populations in worsening health outcomes. When children suffer repeated infections from contaminated water, their bodies cannot absorb nutrients effectively, leading to malnutrition that further weakens their immune systems. When pregnant women lack access to clean water and adequate nutrition, their infants are born at greater risk of the same health challenges.

Addressing these issues requires integrated approaches that recognize the connections between environmental health and human health. Climate-resilient healthcare systems with reliable water access, backup power, and emergency obstetric care can protect mothers and newborns during extreme weather events. Investments in water and sanitation infrastructure reduce disease transmission. Sustainable land management practices protect soil health and food security.

The WHO, UNICEF, and UNFPA have called for urgent action to protect maternal, newborn, and child health from climate impacts. Without intervention, climate-related child deaths could rise by 200,000 annually by 2030. The health of the next generation depends on recognizing that protecting the environment means protecting our most vulnerable populations.

What do you think? How can communities in climate-vulnerable regions better protect pregnant women and children from these interconnected health threats? What role should healthcare systems play in climate adaptation efforts?

References

1. https://www.who.int/news/item/05-06-2024-experts-warn-of-serious-health-impacts-from-climate-change-for-pregnant-women–children–and-older-people
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases
3. https://www.contemporarypediatrics.com/view/climate-change-challenges-faced-by-the-pediatric-population
4. https://www.unicef.org/media/150356/file/The Global Climate Crisis is a Child Crisis.pdf
5. https://www.epa.gov/climateimpacts/climate-change-and-health-pregnant-breastfeeding-and-postpartum-women
6. https://jogh.org/2024/jogh-14-04128
7. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water
8. https://wellcome.org/insights/articles/how-climate-change-affects-waterborne-diseases
9. https://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/pdf/7734
10. https://www.unccd.int/news-stories/stories/when-land-gets-sick-so-do-we
11. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12571-009-0009-z
12. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5800787/