The Reality of Non-Renewable Energy: Challenges and Impacts

Petroleum, coal, and natural gas have powered modern civilization for over a century. These fuels built industries, connected continents, and transformed how billions of people live. But they come with a cost-one that grows more apparent each year. Non-renewable energy sources are finite, meaning once extracted and burned, they cannot be replaced within any human timescale. More critically, their combustion releases pollutants that warm the planet and sicken communities worldwide. For India, one of the world’s largest energy consumers, the stakes are particularly high.

What makes energy sources non-renewable? 🔗

Non-renewable energy comes from resources that took millions of years to form deep within the Earth. Fossil fuels are formed from the decomposition of buried carbon-based organisms that died millions of years ago. These deposits are extracted and burned for energy, releasing stored carbon into the atmosphere. The three primary types are coal, petroleum (oil), and natural gas.

Coal is a solid fossil fuel extracted from underground or surface mines. Petroleum exists as a liquid found in underground reservoirs. Natural gas, primarily composed of methane, often accompanies oil deposits. Unlike solar or wind energy, which renew continuously, these fuels exist in fixed quantities. Current extraction rates far exceed any natural replenishment process, making eventual depletion inevitable.

Fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions 🔗

Fossil fuels-coal, oil, and gas-are by far the largest contributor to global climate change, accounting for around 68 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions and nearly 90 percent of all carbon dioxide emissions. When these fuels burn, they release carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane, nitrous oxide, and other gases that trap heat in Earth’s atmosphere.

The science is clear on this connection. Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels reached record levels in 2023, totaling approximately 36.8 billion metric tons globally. The continued rise in emissions from burning oil, coal, and natural gas is impeding progress to limit global warming. Among fossil fuels, coal is the dirtiest, responsible for over 0.3°C of the 1°C increase in global average temperatures, making it the single largest source of global temperature rise.

How different fossil fuels compare 🔗

Not all fossil fuels emit the same amount of CO₂ per unit of energy produced. Burning natural gas produces about half the CO₂ that burning coal produces for the same amount of energy, because natural gas has a higher hydrogen content. However, natural gas still contributes significantly to emissions. Oil releases approximately a third of the world’s total carbon emissions, while natural gas accounts for about a fifth of total carbon emissions globally.

The burning of coal, natural gas, and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions, representing 34 percent of 2019 emissions according to data compiled by the IPCC. The energy sector as a whole-including transportation, manufacturing, and buildings-contributes about 76 percent of all emissions.

Environmental and health impacts of combustion 🔗

Beyond climate change, burning fossil fuels creates immediate threats to human health. Combustion produces fine particulate matter (PM2.5), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and other toxic pollutants. These substances cause respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems, and premature death.

Exposure to particulate matter from fossil fuels accounted for about 18 to 21 percent of total deaths globally. Research from Harvard University, the University of Birmingham, and the University of Leicester found that fossil fuel air pollution was responsible for approximately 8.7 million deaths worldwide in 2018. This figure exceeds deaths from HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria combined.

India’s air pollution crisis 🔗

The health burden falls disproportionately on countries with heavy fossil fuel dependence. Air pollution from fossil fuel combustion caused 2.5 million premature deaths in India in 2018-representing over 30 percent of total deaths among people over age 14. This makes India second only to China in absolute numbers of fossil fuel-related deaths.

In 2019 alone, India experienced an estimated 1.2 million air pollution-related premature deaths. Energy-related fuel combustion is at the heart of this crisis, producing NOₓ, SO₂, and PM2.5 that persistently exceed national and international air quality standards in many locations. The International Energy Agency notes that road transportation alone was responsible for more than 40 percent of India’s total NOₓ emissions in 2019.

India’s energy dependence challenge 🔗

India faces a unique energy dilemma. As the world’s third-largest energy consumer with a rapidly growing economy, the country requires massive amounts of power. Yet its domestic fossil fuel resources cannot meet this demand. India finds it necessary to import almost 85 percent of the oil it requires to satisfy the appetite of an expanding economy, including a substantial refining and re-export business. The country ranks third globally for oil consumption and second in oil imports.

This import dependence creates economic vulnerability. Global oil price fluctuations directly impact India’s current account deficit and inflation rates. When oil prices spike due to geopolitical tensions or supply disruptions, the effects ripple through the entire economy. Energy security-the ability to access reliable, affordable energy-remains a critical national priority.

Coal remains dominant despite risks 🔗

While petroleum dependence draws attention, coal presents an even more entrenched challenge. India generated 73 percent of its power from coal in 2022-23. Coal remains the backbone of electricity generation because it is the only fuel India has in relative abundance domestically.

According to analysis from the Central Electricity Authority, coal’s share in the power mix is expected to decline to 55 percent by 2030. However, due to rising overall demand, coal power generation will actually increase in absolute terms-by 13 percent between 2023 and 2030. Industry experts suggest coal demand in India may not peak until 2030 to 2035, and possibly remain significant through 2040.

The path to energy transition 🔗

Reducing fossil fuel use is essential to meet global climate goals and protect public health. India has committed to ambitious targets under the Paris Agreement, including achieving 500 gigawatts of non-fossil fuel-based energy capacity by 2030 and reaching net-zero carbon emissions by 2070. The government’s five-point action plan, announced at the 2021 Glasgow climate summit, also includes reducing the carbon intensity of the economy by 45 percent and cutting projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes.

Progress is visible. India’s renewable energy capacity is now five times more than it was in 2014, accounting for about 46 percent of overall power-generation capacity. However, less than 20 percent of actual power consumed comes from renewables because solar and wind cannot yet provide consistent baseload power.

Barriers to faster transition 🔗

Several obstacles slow the shift away from fossil fuels. Grid-scale battery storage remains costly, and supply chain disruptions have further increased prices. Renewables require substantial upfront investment, straining limited financing capacity. India’s projected need of about 60 gigawatts of storage capacity by 2030-from both pumped hydro and batteries-represents a significant infrastructure challenge.

Economic realities also complicate the picture. Millions of people depend on coal mining and thermal power plants for their livelihoods. States receive substantial revenue from coal operations. Closing mines or plants to promote energy transition must account for resulting economic costs to coal-producing regions and the workers who depend on these industries.

Policy approaches and innovations 🔗

Effective transition requires coordinated policies across multiple fronts. For thermal power plants, full implementation of the 2015 emissions standards would enable a 95 percent reduction in SO₂ emissions and an 80 percent reduction in PM2.5 emissions from the power sector by 2030 compared to 2019 levels. Upgrading existing plants with supercritical and ultra-supercritical technology can improve efficiency while reducing emissions.

Electric vehicles represent another opportunity. India has introduced Bharat Stage VI emission standards for all vehicles and aims for a 30 percent share of EVs in total vehicle sales by 2030. The IEA estimates that new EVs combined with energy efficiency improvements will avoid 480,000 barrels per day of extra oil demand between 2023 and 2030. Biofuels are also expanding, with India’s ethanol blending rate of around 12 percent ranking among the world’s highest.

Balancing growth with sustainability 🔗

Any energy transition must balance environmental goals with development needs. India’s per-capita carbon emissions remain lower than most developed countries. Electricity demand is growing at an average rate of 7 percent per year, driven partly by rising air conditioner ownership in homes. Restricting energy access would constrain economic growth and leave millions in energy poverty.

The path forward involves increasing renewable capacity as rapidly as possible while maintaining reliable power supply through conventional sources during the transition. Analysts estimate that to phase out coal by 2040, the cost of solar-plus-storage must fall by roughly 6 percent annually over the next two decades-a daunting but potentially achievable target given global technology trends.

What the future holds 🔗

The global energy landscape is shifting. Current efforts remain insufficient to put global emissions on a downward trajectory toward net zero, but policy changes and technological advances continue to accelerate. Countries that have cut coal use, like the United States with its 3 percent emissions decline in 2023, demonstrate that decoupling economic growth from fossil fuel dependence is possible.

For India, the transition represents both challenge and opportunity. Reducing fossil fuel reliance would improve energy security by decreasing import dependence. It would save lives by cutting air pollution. And it would position the country as a leader in the growing global clean energy economy. The choices made in the coming decade will determine whether India achieves these goals while continuing its development trajectory.

What do you think? Given India’s need for reliable, affordable power and the health costs of air pollution, what should be the priority in balancing energy security with environmental goals? How can communities that depend on coal mining transition to new livelihoods?

References

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