Harmonizing Climate Policies Across Different Levels of Government

Climate change is a global challenge, but the solutions are increasingly local. From state governments adopting ambitious renewable energy targets to cities implementing zero-emission transport policies, subnational actors are becoming indispensable players in the fight against rising temperatures. Yet for these efforts to be effective, they cannot operate in isolation. The real power lies in coordination-aligning the goals of cities, regions, national governments, and international frameworks into a unified climate strategy.

Why multi-level governance matters for climate action 🔗

Climate policy operates across multiple scales simultaneously. International agreements like the Paris Agreement set global temperature targets, national governments translate these into Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), and subnational governments implement concrete measures on the ground. The challenge is ensuring these different levels work together rather than at cross-purposes.

Multi-level governance recognizes a fundamental truth: no national government can implement meaningful climate action without its cities and regions, and no city can effectively tackle climate change without supportive national frameworks. This interdependence creates both challenges and opportunities. Top-down approaches alone often fail because national policies may not adequately account for local realities, needs, and capabilities. At the same time, local governments cannot independently define the national regulatory conditions under which they operate.

The most effective climate governance therefore requires what researchers call vertical integration-continuous dialogue and coordination between different government levels. National ministries, regional authorities, and local governments must cooperate to align their strategies, communication processes, and implementation efforts. Country platforms have emerged as a key mechanism for this coordination, helping to move away from fragmented project-by-project approaches toward systematic integration of urban and subnational priorities into national climate strategies.

Dialogue and cooperation among stakeholders 🔗

Effective climate policy requires unprecedented collaboration between diverse actors. State governments, local authorities, businesses, civil society organizations, and research institutions all bring unique capabilities and perspectives to the table. Building mechanisms for ongoing dialogue between these groups has become essential for addressing interconnected environmental challenges including resource depletion, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and energy security.

Country platforms and coordination mechanisms 🔗

Country platforms represent one of the most promising developments in climate governance coordination. These nationally led mechanisms systematically integrate urban and subnational priorities into climate and development strategies. They ensure meaningful participation of city and regional governments, alignment of local and national climate plans, and mobilization of finance for urban mitigation and adaptation projects.

The Coalition for High Ambition Multilevel Partnerships (CHAMP), launched at COP28, exemplifies this approach. Colombia, as an early endorser, has developed a participatory strategy involving regional workshops for diverse subnational actors-including youth, women, Indigenous and Afro-Colombian groups, and local government representatives-to shape the country’s updated NDC. Subnational proposals from these consultations emphasize nature-based solutions, biodiversity conservation, disaster risk reduction, and food security alongside emissions reductions.

Regional partnerships and knowledge exchange 🔗

Beyond formal government structures, networks of cities and regions have become powerful vehicles for sharing best practices and building collective capacity. Organizations like ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability, the Global Covenant of Mayors, and C40 Cities facilitate knowledge exchange among subnational actors worldwide. These networks help cities learn from each other’s successes and failures, accelerating the adoption of effective climate measures.

Research from Oxford University confirms that sub-state actors contribute to climate governance not only through their own emissions reductions but also by developing new policies and business models that can spread internationally. Knowledge exchange and capacity-building help these innovations scale across borders, building political support for more ambitious national and international action.

Growth of climate legislation 🔗

One of the most remarkable developments in global climate governance has been the explosive growth in climate-related laws and policies. When the Kyoto Protocol was signed in 1997, only 54 laws and policies existed globally related to limiting greenhouse gas emissions or developing frameworks for confronting climate change. By 2018, this number had grown to over 1,500 climate laws and policies worldwide, with 106 introduced since the Paris Agreement was reached.

This twenty-fold increase reflects both growing recognition of climate urgency and the mainstreaming of climate considerations across policy domains. The Climate Change Laws of the World database, maintained by the Grantham Research Institute at LSE and the Sabin Center at Columbia Law School, covers climate and climate-related laws addressing energy, transport, land use, and climate resilience.

Types of climate legislation 🔗

Climate legislation takes many forms, each addressing different aspects of the emissions challenge:

Carbon pricing mechanisms have become increasingly popular. These include carbon taxes, which directly price emissions, and emissions trading systems (cap-and-trade), which create markets for emission allowances. The European Union’s Emissions Trading System, launched in 2005, remains the world’s largest carbon market, though China’s national trading system now covers more emissions.

Renewable energy schemes establish targets and incentives for clean energy deployment. These range from renewable portfolio standards requiring utilities to source specific percentages of electricity from renewables, to feed-in tariffs guaranteeing prices for renewable generators, to auction mechanisms that drive down clean energy costs through competition.

Vehicle emissions standards regulate the carbon intensity of transportation. These include fuel economy requirements, tailpipe emission limits, and increasingly, mandates for electric vehicle adoption. Some jurisdictions have announced plans to phase out internal combustion engine vehicle sales entirely.

Framework legislation establishes overarching governance structures for climate action. As of late 2025, 75 countries have adopted climate framework laws that set long-term targets, create accountability mechanisms, and require regular progress reporting. These framework laws create expectations that make it politically difficult to reverse course, though they cannot prevent backsliding entirely.

Legislation driving ambition 🔗

All Paris Agreement signatories now have at least one law addressing climate change or low-carbon transitions. Importantly, 139 countries have framework laws that address climate mitigation or adaptation holistically. These form a substantial legal foundation on which further action can build. Of the laws passed since Paris, 28 explicitly reference the Agreement, signaling intent to align domestic action with international commitments.

The challenge now shifts from enacting new legislation to strengthening existing laws and ensuring implementation. Climate litigation has emerged as an important accountability mechanism-by the end of 2024, 128 cases had been filed against governments globally challenging the ambition or implementation of climate targets and policies, with just over 40% of decided cases successful.

The core role of non-state actors 🔗

Non-state actors have become central to global climate governance. These include businesses, investors, cities, regions, civil society organizations, research institutions, and other entities outside national government structures. Their contributions span the entire policy spectrum-from agenda-setting and problem definition to implementation and accountability.

Functions of non-state actors 🔗

Research identifies several key governance functions that non-state actors perform:

Information sharing and transparency: Non-state actors collect, analyze, and disseminate crucial climate data. Initiatives like the Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) have helped standardize corporate emissions reporting, while research organizations track progress against stated targets. This transparency enables accountability and helps identify both successes to replicate and gaps to address.

Capacity building and implementation: Non-state actors often possess technical expertise that governments lack. Business associations, research institutions, and international organizations provide training, technical assistance, and implementation support to governments at all levels. This is particularly important for developing countries with limited administrative capacity.

Policy advocacy and rule-setting: Environmental NGOs raise public awareness and advocate for stronger policies. Business associations propose solutions and participate in policy design. Research organizations provide evidence to inform decision-making. Together, these actors shape the policy landscape within which governments operate.

The groundswell of climate commitments 🔗

Since the Paris Agreement established an “all hands on deck” approach, cities, regions, and businesses have dramatically scaled up their climate commitments. The total number of climate actions pledged by non-state actors has more than doubled since 2017 to over 32,500, encompassing renewable power generation, vehicle electrification, net-zero targets, science-based targets, and adaptation measures.

Research assessing over 3,000 cities and 170 regions within G20 nations reveals a noticeable uptick in medium- to long-term emissions targets post-2020. However, over 60% of these subnational entities are falling short of their stated ambitions, with an even larger percentage not achieving reduction rates consistent with limiting warming to 1.5°C. These findings highlight the need for enhanced accountability mechanisms and standardized reporting.

The ambition loop 🔗

Perhaps most significantly, research demonstrates that subnational action can positively shape national climate ambition. When cities, regions, and businesses adopt ambitious targets, they create political space for national governments to strengthen their own commitments. This “catalytic cascading” or “ambition loop” suggests that bottom-up action and top-down policy reinforce each other.

The hybrid governance architecture institutionalized through the Paris Agreement explicitly acknowledges this dynamic. While NDCs submitted by national governments form the backbone of climate mitigation, the agreement recognizes that non-state actors are indispensable partners. UNEP research emphasizes that better integration between non-state commitments and national efforts can strengthen overall climate action by linking strategies, bolstering technical expertise, and aiding local implementation of national objectives.

Bridging the implementation gap 🔗

Despite impressive growth in climate commitments at all levels, a significant gap remains between ambition and achievement. Closing this gap requires addressing several persistent challenges.

Finance and capacity constraints 🔗

Subnational governments, particularly in developing countries, often lack the financial resources and technical capacity to implement their climate plans. Estimates suggest that urban climate finance must grow at least fivefold, to USD 4.3 trillion per year, for cities to meet their mitigation targets by 2030. National governments can help catalyze this investment by adopting country-led, multilevel approaches that unlock both public and private capital.

Data and accountability 🔗

Many non-state actors lack robust greenhouse gas inventories and detailed implementation strategies. Standardized reporting frameworks, technical support for data collection, and independent verification are essential for ensuring that commitments translate into real emissions reductions. The move from voluntary to regulated disclosure requirements in jurisdictions like the EU and UK is helping address this challenge.

Policy coherence 🔗

Integrating climate ambitions into national and subnational development plans, economic strategies, and sectoral policies is essential for promoting coherence and maximizing synergies between climate action, economic growth, and social development. Without this integration, climate policies risk being undermined by contradictory decisions in other policy domains.

Looking ahead 🔗

The architecture of global climate governance continues to evolve. The Paris Agreement’s five-year review cycles create regular opportunities for countries to strengthen their NDCs, ideally informed by the experience of subnational implementation. The growing role of country platforms promises better coordination between levels of government. And the expanding ecosystem of non-state initiatives provides models, momentum, and accountability.

Success ultimately depends on transforming these governance innovations into tangible emissions reductions. That requires not just setting targets but implementing policies, not just making commitments but tracking progress, and not just coordinating across levels but aligning incentives to ensure all actors pull in the same direction.

What do you think? How effectively is your city or region aligned with national climate commitments, and what role should local communities play in holding both subnational and national governments accountable for their climate promises?

References

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